The category of civil society has attracted the attention of prominent scholars for many centuries. A great contribution to the development of the theory of civil society was made by S. Montesquieu, J. Locke, J.-J. Rousseau, I. Kant and other outstanding thinkers. Currently, many researchers continue to develop theoretical approaches to understanding this multifaceted social phenomenon, which leads to a broad interpretation of the term «civil society». The most successful definition seems to be given by the American political scientist F. P. Blavatsky. With A. Schmitter.

Civil society is defined as a set or system of self-organized intermediary groups that are relatively independent of State bodies and are able to take collective actions to protect and promote their interests, but do not seek to replace either state agents or private producers, but nevertheless agree to act within the framework of pre-established rules of a «civil» or legal nature^[22].

Key elements of a structured civil society can be identified.

Political and professional spheres.

These include political parties (with the exception of those that are part of the government), as well as organizations created to protect professional interests and solve specific tasks. These may include trade unions, committees, commissions, councils, and other similar structures.

Social activism and social movements.

This includes various public organizations and movements dealing with environmental, anti-war, human rights and other issues that contribute to the formation of an active civil society.

Voluntary associations of citizens.

These are non-governmental initiatives, such as interest associations, clubs, and self-governing structures that unite citizens based on common values or goals.

Economic activity.

In this area, civil society institutions include cooperatives, shareholder associations, equity associations, and other forms of economic interaction based on private ownership and collective resource management.

Social sphere.

The key role here is played by organizations aimed at protecting the well-being of citizens, developing local self-government, solving household and communal issues, as well as improving the living conditions of the population.

Spiritual and cultural sphere.

Civil society also includes structures that promote freedom of speech and religion, promote creative, scientific and educational initiatives, and ensure the independence of cultural and intellectual communities.

In a broader sense, civil society encompasses all non-governmental organizations, including non-profit organizations, religious groups, district and local associations, initiative communities, voluntary movements, and other forms of self-organization of citizens acting independently of the State.

Civil society has a number of key characteristics:

- and secondarily from the state. This is a set of non-political relations between people and social groups that operate outside the framework of state structures and represent private, corporate or public interests.

- with self-directed social interaction. It includes horizontal ties between citizens, which are manifested in the economic, household and public spheres, based on the principles of self-organization and initiative.

- mimicry of public associations. Civil society is formed through voluntary associations of people, such as families, professional and creative associations, public and charitable organizations, cooperatives, sports clubs, religious communities, and other forms of collective activity.

- active participation in public life. Civil society institutions promote the protection of human rights and freedoms, the expression and realization of public interests, and act as a mechanism for monitoring the activities of the State;

- a well-developed legal culture. The existence of a civil society implies a high level of legal awareness and responsibility of its members, the existence of legal mechanisms for interaction between society and the state.

Despite the diversity of views on the role and place of civil society in the modern world, there are three key approaches to understanding it.

Civil society as an autonomous social sphere.

In most studies, it is considered as an independent area of public life, based on the free choice and self-organization of citizens. In this context, civil society acts as a counterweight to State power, ensuring a balance between the interests of the state and society. Within the framework of this approach, there is a gradual transition to understanding civil society as «a society of autonomous individuals», as «a set of relations and institutions that function independently of political power», as «a society that is organized in opposition to state power», etc^[23]. In this regard, the term "subsidiarity"is increasingly used when describing civil society. which in this case indicates the priority of the individual in relation to all public structures and associations. In other words, the priority of «I» over «We» is strongly emphasized^[24].

Civil society as a «third sector».

This approach, which has been widely adopted since the 1970s, treats civil society as a non-profit sphere, distinct from both the public and commercial sectors. Each of these sectors has its own mechanisms of functioning, forms of organization and principles of interaction with society. A characteristic feature of the «third sector» organizations is that they are created on a voluntary basis and by the nature of their activities are non-profit organizations, that is, they are not focused on profit-making. The funds received as a result of the activities of such organizations are not distributed among managers, participants and other interested parties, so this sector is also called the «non-profit sector»^[25]. The «third sector», which consists of many different organizations, is sometimes seen as an infrastructure of civil society. Moreover, in a certain context, the terms «civil society» and «third sector» are even used interchangeably.

Civil society through the prism of «social capital».

According to this approach, civil society is considered in terms of the level of civic engagement, trust and solidarity within society. The concept of «social capital» is used to analyze the factors that contribute to the development of democracy, effective interaction between citizens and the strengthening of public institutions. This term was introduced into modern research by Robert Putnam, who also believed that social networks are an important capital that can be used for their own benefit, as well as for the material benefit of individuals and social groups^[26].

The role of civil society in public policy is as follows:

- advocacy and lobbying. Civil organizations can promote the interests of various social groups, participate in public hearings, initiate legislative changes, and make proposals for adjusting legal norms. Lobbying helps to convey the opinion of citizens to state bodies and participate in key decision-making;

- control over the activities of the authorities. Public structures monitor the implementation of laws, participate in anti-corruption initiatives, and ensure transparency in the work of State bodies. Independent civil society organizations and mass media publish reports, conduct investigations, and cover cases of abuse of power.

- education and enlightenment. Civil institutions contribute to increasing the level of civic engagement and political literacy of the population. They organize lectures, seminars, and courses on human rights and mechanisms for citizen participation in government.

- a mediator between society and the state. NGOs and other organizations help shape the public demand for reform and modernization of political institutions. They act as intermediaries in the dialogue between the population and the authorities, contribute to the resolution of conflict situations and form public opinion;

- social initiatives and volunteer activities. ГCivil society is actively involved in solving social problems, such as helping the poor, protecting the environment, and supporting people with disabilities and other vulnerable groups. The development of volunteerism and charity programs contributes to strengthening social cohesion;

- development of digital platforms and technologies. Modern technologies allow civil society to use Internet resources and social networks to coordinate its actions, disseminate information and mobilize the population. Online petitions, crowdfunding platforms, and digital public initiatives significantly expand the opportunities for influencing public policy.

According to the Concept of Civil Society Development in the Republic of Kazakhstan dated August 27, 2020, «Civil society can be defined as a set of individuals, groups, socio-economic, moral and spiritual, family relations and various social institutions that take into account the interests of individuals and groups, freely and voluntarily create associations, associations and other unions to meet their own and other needs. public needs and interests»^[27].

In Kazakhstan, the main elements of modern civil society function, representing a wide range of public activity and self-organization of citizens:

- political parties representing the interests of various social groups and participating in the formation of state policy;

- public associations, associations and foundations that promote the protection of citizens ' rights, the implementation of social initiatives and the solution of socially significant problems;

- religious associations that play an important role in the spiritual and cultural life of society;

- independent mass media (mass media) that provide information to the public, control over the authorities and form public opinion;

- professional unions that protect workers' labor rights and promote better working conditions;

- professional associations (associations of entrepreneurs, auditors, lawyers, doctors, and other specialists) that contribute to the development of the professional community and the regulation of business standards;

- non-profit, sports and other associations that unite citizens by interests and promote the development of cultural and physical activity;

- apartment owners 'cooperatives (KSK), property owners' associations (OSI) and simple partnerships (PT) that manage residential buildings and improve the urban environment;

- local self-government bodies (maslikhats, akims, gatherings and assemblies)that represent the interests of local citizens and ensure the participation of the population in the management of public affairs.

Thus, in Kazakhstan, civil society institutions exist both de jure and de facto, playing a significant role in the socio-political and economic life of the country.

Taking into account current trends in the economy, the importance of civil society institutions in stimulating public activity of Kazakhstanis, as well as in providing and using mechanisms of public influence to solve current problems, is increasing. However, despite their existence, civil society institutions in Kazakhstan remain weak and do not fully reflect public interests and needs.

The Concept for the Development of Civil Society in the Republic of Kazakhstan dated August 27, 2020, taking into account other issues, specifies the following:

- Imperfection of the legislation of the Republic of Kazakhstan regulating the activities of civil society institutions;

- lack of a system for accounting for the contribution of the non-governmental sector to the economic and social development of the country;

- low involvement of the population in the development of the volunteer movement and the activities of the non-governmental sector;

- low level of public confidence in civil society institutions;

- insufficient work of state bodies to involve civil society institutions in solving problems;

- the dependence of NGOs on state funding, the lack of diversification of sources of funds;

- high competition between third-sector organizations for access to public financing;

- poor coordination between the requests of the population and the targeted allocation of funds;

- personnel shortage in non-governmental organizations;

- an insufficiently developed charity institution;

- a low degree of transparency in the third sector; insufficiently developed partnership between civil society actors;

- weak representation of Kazakhstan's civil society institutions on international platforms^[28].

Civil society is thus an integral part of the political process and an important tool for democratic governance. Effective interaction of civil institutions with state structures contributes to making more balanced and socially significant decisions, which ultimately increases the legitimacy of the authorities and improves the quality of life of the population. Developing new forms of public participation and supporting civic initiatives are key aspects for building a sustainable democratic society.

---

^[22] Schmitter P. Reflections on Civil Society and the Consolidation of Democracy // Polis. – 1996. – No. 5. – pp. 16–27.

^[23] Maksimenko V. The Ideologeme of Civil Society and Civic Culture // Pro et Contra. – 1999. – Vol. 4. – No. 1. – p. 114.

^[24] Nagel S. S. Handbook of Public Policy Evaluation. Lanham, Md.: Lexington Books, 2002.

^[25] Kanunnikov A. Civil Society as a Participant in the Political Process // International Life. – No. 6, 2021. https://interaffairs.ru/jauthor/material/2523. Accessed on 23.02.2025.

^[26] Putnam R. D. Gesellschaft und Gemeinsinn. Gütersloh: Bertelsmann Stiftung, 2001.

^[27] Concept for the Development of Civil Society in the Republic of Kazakhstan dated August 27, 2020. https://adilet.zan.kz/rus/docs/U2000000390. Accessed on 23.02.2025

^[28] Concept for the Development of Civil Society in the Republic of Kazakhstan dated August 27, 2020. https://adilet.zan.kz/rus/docs/U2000000390. Accessed on 23.02.2025